Chan Chan on the North Coast of Peru

Chan Chan was the Chimu capital on the arid north coast of Peru, near the modern city of Trujillo. The Chimu and the Chimor Empire, which included most of the northern and central coast of modern Peru, dates between A.D. 1000 and 1470. The culture grew out of the Moche culture and disappeared when incorporated into the Inca Empire.

The site is about eight square miles in size, and within it are nine to eleven monumental enclosures, depending on how they are interpreted. These monumental enclosures are thought to have been palaces of the kings of Chimor and the other elites. They are walled structures with mounds, rooms, halls, courtyards, etc., on a grand scale. Surrounding these enclosures are the remains of the modest quarters of most of the city's residents, made of adobe and cane.

View of Chan Chan

Map of Chan Chan

We toured the excavated Tschudi Enclosure, which has been partly reconstructed and interpreted for tourists. The high enclosure walls, the spacious plazas, the maze of rooms for ceremonial and storage, the beautiful adobe wall decorations, and the large interior reservoir are features that still amaze the visitor to Tschudi. Each of the enclosures have been found to include rooms that probably served as administrative offices, storerooms, walk-in wells, and a burial platform, although it must be pointed out that archaeologists, unlike pothunters, have barely touched the site.

Workmen Stablizing the Tschudi Enclosure

Reconstructing Wall with Adobe Bricks

Cross-section of Wall of Adobe Bricks

Plaza of the Tschudi Enclosure

Detail of Plaza Wall

Other Wall Decorations

Ceremonial Room in Tschudi Enclosure

Ceremonial Room with U-shaped Construction of Unknown Purpose

Detail of Ceremonial Room Adobe Decoration

Reservoir in the Tschudi Enclosure

Chan Chan is without doubt one of the great architectural achievements of Native America, and it was the product of a complex aboriginal civilization.

North Coast Peru Moche Sites

On my recent trip to South America, I was able to tour a few impressive archaeological sites on the dry north coast of Peru. These included the sites of El Brujo and Moche and the large Chimor site of Chan Chan. The latter I will write about in another post: It is an incredible site covering some 8 square miles with 11 monumental enclosures, dating A.D. 900 to 1400, and deserves its own separate treatment. The former sites are earlier, and these north coast sites of the Moche culture are thought to date from the beginning of the common era to about A.D. 650. The art and monumental architecture of the Moche culture has been known and studied since the colonial period, but they received a great deal of new attention in the late 1980s and early 1990s when the spectacular royal tombs of Sipan were discovered and excavated in the same area. These also were Moche, and there exists a large literature on those discoveries.


My visit centered around the north coast Peruvian city of Trujillo. Twenty miles north of the city is El Brujo (the Sorcerer), and 18 miles south in the Moche River valley is the site of Moche itself. The name Moche is given to the river, to the site, which possibly was the capital of an ancient state, and to Moche culture, which spread throughout the north coast of Peru. Since the culture is known primarily from archaeology, whether Moche was one or two or several states has not been established, but regional stylistic differences suggest it may not have been a single state.


Moche art and architecture is spectacular, and the use of gold in some of its artistic expression has attracted attention since colonial times. One of the first things I noticed when arriving at the El Brujo site, after of course the huge mounds, which could be seen even before arriving at the site, was the cratered ground surface throughout the site area. These craters are potholes: the remains of the search for treasure by looters. One of the two large mounds at El Brujo, Huaca Cortada, has a large cut through its middle, an attempt to find treasure early last century. It is remarkable that anything actually remains at the site for archaeological study. Armed guards patrol the site today, guarding what is left.

Looters' Potholes at El Brujo

The other large mound at El Brujo is Huaca Cao Viejo. It was constructed of adobe bricks and had at least six decorated terraces and a large, enclosed plaza on its north side. There is a ramp leading to its summit where a structure once stood. Adobe reliefs on the terraces facing the plaza show a Moche warrior leading a procession of prisoners with a rope tied around their necks and battle scenes.

Huaca Cao Viejo

(plaza covered at left, burials covered at upper center)

Warrior and Prisoners in Relief

Detail of Prisoners in Relief

Battle Scene

Burials were found on the upper terraces. The most elaborate is referred to as the Mausoleum of the Queen. The principal burial was of a woman interned with gold and gilded copper ornaments and furniture, accompanied by attendants and juveniles, presumably sacrificed. Whether she was a queen or not we do not know, but her opulent burial with sacrifices in a large, elaborately decorated mound suggests a high status within a complex polity. A museum is under construction at the site, but it was not yet completed at the time of my visit. There is also an archaeology museum in the city of Trujillo.

Mausoleum of the Queen at El Brujo

Tombs of the Queen (left) and Attendants (back)

The site of Moche has two large mounds built of adobe bricks and a residential and craft area between them. The Huaca del Sol (Temple of the Sun) is one of the largest pre-Columbian structures in the Americas, but it has all but been destroyed by looters. In colonial times the Moche River was even rechanneled to erode the mound to wash out any treasure. Archaeological study has focused on the other mound, the Huaca de la Luna (Temple of the Moon). This is a complex of platforms, patios, ramps, and plazas, with stylized painted decorations. It completely overwhelmed me with its enormity and spectacular beauty. This most certainly was the center of political and religious activity for a complex culture.

Huaca de la Luna


Painted Relief from the Great Patio in Huaca de la Luna

Just when I thought I had seen the pinnacle of Peruvian cultural development by my visit to these Moche sites, I was taken to Chan Chan.

Darwin's Birthday

Nothing in biology makes sense except in the light of evolution.

-Theodosius Dobzhansky 1973

This year is the bicentennial of the birth of Charles Darwin and the 150th anniversary of the publication of his seminal book On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection (1859). As an archaeologist, a gardener, a birdwatcher, and a largely self-taught naturalist, I have come to embrace Darwin's powerful explanatory idea to understand the world in which I find myself. Retirement has freed my reading priorities from strictly archaeological and anthropological books and articles, and I have had time to read the works of a number of scholars who have written about Darwin and his idea. I just finished reading Daniel C. Dennett's Darwin's Dangerous Idea: Evolution and the Meanings of Life (Simon & Schuster Paperbacks, New York, 1995). This is not an easy book to read, and, in fact, it took me four months to finish. Rereadings and reading pauses, during which I read numerous other lighter books, accounted for some of this time, and there is the fact that the book has 500-plus pages, but the main reason is that there are so many fascinating facets to this idea dealt with by Dennett that absorbing and thinking about them made reading ten to fifteen pages or fewer a usual evening's quota. I was an undergraduate philosophy major, so I have experienced challenging philosophical texts before, but none so interesting as this one. Dennett is well-read and brilliant, and his writing is very readable and has references for addition reading throughout the book. Most importantly, because he deals with a profound idea dealing with the meaning(s) of life, all life, your life, my life, it is a book that is best digested slowly. I have read the works of evolutionary biologists, including Richard Dawkins and Stephen Jay Gould, but Dennett, a philosopher and a Professor of Philosophy at Tufts University, in this book, has more thoroughly examined and explained the "Darwinian Revolution" and its implications for understanding who and what we are, at least to this old student.

Finally, on the subject of this blog, Darwin's birthday is February 12, which of course is the same day as President Lincoln's. In fact, they both were born on the same day in 1809. What a good day that was. We know what great importance Abraham Lincoln was to us, and we celebrate his birthday each year on Presidents' Day. Little attention, however, is given to Darwin's, yet Dennett states, "If I were to give an award for the single best idea anyone has ever had, I'd give it to Darwin, ahead of Newton and Einstein and everyone else." I hope more attention is given to Darwin's, at least in this year of the bicentennial of his birth.

A Trip to Cuzco and Machu Picchu

As a former college professor who has taught American archaeology for over 35 years, I have always wanted to visit Machu Picchu, the Inca site in the Peruvian Andes discovered by Hiram Bingham, with the help from local Indians, in 1911. It is relatively inaccessible and in a beautiful setting above the Rio Urubamba Valley on a ridge between Machu Picchu Mountain and Huayna Picchu Mountain, at 8040 feet above sea level. Because it was unknown to the Spanish, the site and its structures are remarkably well preserved. It and its discovery has the aura of an Indiana Jones adventure or, at least, the closest real archaeologists get to such an adventure.

Machu Picchu (Site and Mountain)

Our trip to the site began in Lima, at the same time leaders of the Pacific rim nations (APEC)were meeting there. Parked at the Lima airport were numerous official jets from the large and small nations that participated, including China, Russia, Japan, and, of course, the United States. Air Force One and George W. Bush were in town for the meeting. We would return to Lima just after it ended, but with the security at hand in Lima and the inconvenience it would cause us, it was fortunate that we were headed for Cuzco and not staying there. The flight to Cuzco on LAN Peru Airline took about 75 minutes, and it took us from sea level in Lima to 11,200 feet above sea level in Cuzco. My wife and I had taken high altitude medication (Diamox) to minimize the affects of this altitude, and we were glad we did, as we saw a number of tourists who became sick in Cuzco from the altitude change. We became tired easier, but taking it slower and drink plenty of water kept us healthy.

Ruins of the Inca Qoricancha under the arches of Santo Domingo Convent

We stayed at the Hotel Libertador, near the center of the city and across the street from the Santo Domingo Convent and the ruin of the Inca Temple of the Sun (Qoricancha) over which the convent was built. After lunch at the hotel, we walked around the city, visiting the convent and the Inca ruins within it, the Plaza de Armas and the Cuzco Cathedral (built over the Inca Wiracocha Palace), and other sights in the city. We had a wonderful guide who showed us Cuzco's sights and later Machu Picchu: Fernando Boca. We met him at our hotel, and he walked with us around the city and then took us above the city to the Inca fortress, Sacsayhuaman. The fine Inca stonework in the city is readily distingishable from modern and that of the Spanish. It is made of closely fitted large stones, sometimes regular and flat, as at the Qoricancha, and sometimes irregular and pillow-like, such as at Sacsayhuaman. Both forms are without mortar and are of impressive craftsmanship. Spanish and modern walls of buildings in the center city often rest on foundations of Inca walls. Our guide spoke English very well and was very knowledgeable about the Inca and their culture. He gave us the native point of view; for example, he pointed out native additions and alterations to numerous things that the Spanish forced the Indians to construct, to paint, and even to think.

Arches of Santo Domingo built on Inca walls

Sacsayhuaman (sounds like "sexy woman," according one of our bus drivers) is an large complex built on one of the hills overlooking the city. The stonework is massive, and some individual stones must have required huge efforts to put them in place and to fit them together. The size of both the stonework and the site suggests the formidable power of the ruling Inca.

Sacsayhuaman

The trip to Machu Picchu involved a bus ride over mountain roads from Cuzco to the train station at Ollanta (about 1.5 hours) and the train ride along the Rio Vilcanota valley to Aguas Calientes (another 1.5 hours). The train goes where no road goes, so it is the only way to get to the site, unless you want to walk the Inca Trail from Cuzco. The trip takes you from an Alpine mountainous environment at 11,200 feet to a tropical mountainous one at 8040 feet. From the train station at Aguas Calientes in the valley, a road goes up the mountain to the site. You can walk a well-defined trail or take a bus, which snakes its way up to the site on a narrow dirt road with numerous switchbacks. We took the bus and noted that some of our fellow passengers closed their eyes for parts of the trip.

Aguas Calientes train station

The site is beautiful and a magnificent monument to Inca culture and technology. It is breath-taking in it setting and scope, and not because of the altitude. We carried with us a copy of Ruth M. Wright and Alfredo Valencia Zegarra's recently revised book The Machu Picchu Guidebook: A Self-Guided Tour (Johnson Books, Boulder, 2004), and with it and our guide, I believe we had a wonderful tour of the site. We visited and photographed all the site's landmarks: the Temple of the Sun (which was inaccessible because it was under excavation) and the cave below it, the royal residence, the Sacred Plaza, the Intiwatana, the Group of the Mortars, the Temple of the Condor, the Slide, several of the site's 16 fountains, and others. Some areas of the site have been reconstructed, most probably to stabilize and to make the site more accessible to visitors, and thatched roofs have been added to a few of the guard houses; but, for the most part, the site is one of a kind: it was not destroyed or built upon by subsequent cultures.

Guardhouses

Stonework in the royal residence

Temple of the Three Windows

Intiwatana Stone

One of 16 fountains

Condor stone in the Temple of the Condor

Agricultural terraces

There is a hotel and restaurant at the site, and there are more tourist facilities in Aguas Calientes. Everything from postcards to jewelry to clothing (more tee shirts) are sold in the stalls outside the train station.

Tourists and Aguas Calientes vendors

We returned to Cuzco the same way we came, and to Lima again by air. We took a tour of Lima before leaving. Our Lima guide, unlike our Cuzco guide, had no native heritage and no identification with native culture. In fact, Betty, as she introduced herself, complained that the native people come down from the mountains to Lima for employment and pay no taxes on their earnings. She said they move in with family in crowded, poor housing and have overburdened the city's infrastructure. She took us to the main plaza and the Cathedral, where we saw the tomb of Francisco Pizarro, who after arriving in 1532 proceeded to destroy Inca culture. Nearby is the Presidential Palace, and around the corner is the Church of San Francisco, which has mummies and is the roosting place of hundreds of pigeons. The center of the city has beautiful colonial architecture, in addition to the numerous churches, and this is recognized by its designation as a UNESCO Cultural World Heritage Site. It also has several important archaeology museums, including the Archaeological Museum, with its notable Inca ceramic and Paracas textile collections, and the Gold Museum, which displays the lure for the Conquistadors. Peru is an archaeologist's paradise. I want to go back soon.

Pizarro's Tomb (right) in the Lima Cathedral